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According to a study by Pew Research , a large portion of Americans read news on digital and on mobile devices. Because internet does not have the “column inches” limitation of print media, online news stories can, but don’t always, come bundled with supplementary material.

The medium of the World Wide Web also enables hyperlinking , which allows readers to navigate to other pages related to the one they’re reading. Despite these changes, some studies have concluded that internet news coverage remains fairly homogenous and dominated by news agencies.

News agencies are services which compile news and disseminate it in bulk. Because they disseminate information to a wide variety of clients, who repackage the material as news for public consumption, news agencies tend to use less controversial language in their reports.

Despite their importance, news agencies are not well known by the general public. They keep low profiles and their reporters usually do not get bylines.

By the end of the twentieth century, Reuters far outpaced the other news agencies in profits, and became one of the largest companies in Europe. United Press International gained prominence as a world news agency in the middle of the twentieth century, but shrank in the s and was sold off at low prices. News agencies, especially Reuters and the newly important Bloomberg News , convey both news stories for mass audiences and financial information of interest to businesses and investors.

Its news service continued to exploit this electronic advantage by combining computer-generated analytics with text reporting.

Bloomberg linked with Agence France Presse in the s. Following the marketization of the Chinese economy and the media boom of the s, Xinhua has adopted some commercial practices including subscription fees, but it remains government-subsidized. It provides newswire, news photos, economic information, and audio and video news.

On the internet, news aggregators play a role similar to that of the news agency—and, because of the sources they select, tend to transmit news stories which originate from the main agencies. Of articles displayed by Yahoo! News in the U. In India, News stories come from Reuters. Google News relies somewhat less on news agencies, and has shown high volatility, in the sense of focusing heavily on the most recent handful of salient world events.

By some accounts, dating back to the s, the increasing interconnectedness of the news system has accelerated the pace of world history itself. The global news system is dominated by agencies from Europe and the United States, and reflects their interests and priorities in its coverage.

UNESCO encouraged the new states formed from colonial territories in the s to establish news agencies, to generate domestic news stories, exchange news items with international partners, and disseminate both types of news internally. The Inter Press Service , founded in , has served as an intermediary for Third World press agencies. In India, —, these agencies implemented an experimental satellite television system, called the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment , with assistance from the Indian Space Research Organisation , and All India Radio.

By the s, much of the Third World had succumbed to a debt crisis resulting from unpayable large loans accumulated since the s. At this point, the World Bank took an active role in the governance of many countries, and its authority extended to communications policy.

The policy of developing Third World media gave way to a global regime of free trade institutions like the World Trade Organization , which also protected the free flow of information across borders. In countries with less telecommunications infrastructure, people, especially youth, tend today to get their news predominantly from mobile phones and, less so, from the internet.

Older folks listen more to the radio. The government of China is a major investor in Third World telecommunications, especially in Africa. News values are the professional norms of journalism. Commonly, news content should contain all the ” Five Ws ” who, what, when, where, why, and also how of an event. Newspapers normally place hard news stories on the first pages, so the most important information is at the beginning, enabling busy readers to read as little or as much as they desire.

Local stations and networks with a set format must take news stories and break them down into the most important aspects due to time constraints. Journalists are often expected to aim for objectivity ; reporters claim to try to cover all sides of an issue without bias, as compared to commentators or analysts, who provide opinion or personal points of view. The resulting articles lay out facts in a sterile, noncommittal manner, standing back to “let the reader decide” the truth of the matter.

In the United Kingdom , the government agency of Ofcom Office of Communications enforces a legal requirement of “impartiality” on news broadcasters. Many single-party governments have operated state-run news organizations, which may present the government’s views.

Although newswriters have always laid claim to truth and objectivity, the modern values of professional journalism were established beginning in the late s and especially after World War I, when groups like the American Society of Newspaper Editors codified rules for unbiased news reporting.

These norms held the most sway in American and British journalism, and were scorned by some other countries. Even in those situations where objectivity is expected, it is difficult to achieve, and individual journalists may fall foul of their own personal bias, or succumb to commercial or political pressure. Similarly, the objectivity of news organizations owned by conglomerated corporations fairly may be questioned, in light of the natural incentive for such groups to report news in a manner intended to advance the conglomerate’s financial interests.

Individuals and organizations who are the subject of news reports may use news management techniques to try to make a favourable impression. Some commentators on news values have argued that journalists’ training in news values itself represents a systemic bias of the news. The norm of objectivity leads journalists to gravitate towards certain types of acts and exclude others. A journalist can be sure of objectivity in reporting that an official or public figure has made a certain statement.

This is one reason why so much news reporting is devoted to official statements. Feminist critiques argue that discourse defined as objective by news organizations reflects a male-centered perspective. The critique of traditional norms of objectivity comes from within news organizations as well. Viewed from a sociological perspective , news for mass consumption is produced in hierarchical organizations.

Reporters, working near the bottom of the structure, are given significant autonomy in researching and preparing reports, subject to assignments and occasional intervention from higher decision-makers. The professional norms of journalism discourage overt censorship; however, news organizations have covert but firm norms about how to cover certain topics.

These policies are conveyed to journalists through socialization on the job; without any written policy, they simply learn how things are done. News production is routinized in several ways. News stories use familiar formats and subgenres which vary by topic.

Many news items revolve around periodic press conferences or other scheduled events. Further routine is established by assigning each journalist to a beat : a domain of human affairs, usually involving government or commerce, in which certain types of events routinely occur. A common scholarly frame for understanding news production is to examine the role of information gatekeepers : to ask why and how certain narratives make their way from news producers to news consumers.

New factors have emerged in internet-era newsrooms. One issue is “click-thinking”, the editorial selection of news stories—and of journalists—who can generate the most website hits and thus advertising revenue. Unlike a newspaper, a news website has detailed data collection about which stories are popular and who is reading them. Journalists’ sometimes unattributed echoing of other news sources can also increase the homogeneity of news feeds.

In , a number of journalists were embarrassed after all reproducing a fictional quotation, originating from Wikipedia. News organizations have historically been male-dominated, though women have acted as journalists since at least the s.

The number of female journalists has increased over time, but organizational hierarchies remain controlled mostly by men. For various reasons, news media usually have a close relationship with the state, and often church as well, even when they cast themselves in critical roles.

The news agencies which rose to power in the mids all had support from their respective governments, and in turn served their political interests to some degree. Today, international non-governmental organizations NGOs rival and may surpass governments in their influence on the content of news.

Governments use international news transmissions to promote the national interest and conduct political warfare , alternatively known as public diplomacy and, in the modern era, international broadcasting.

International radio broadcasting came into wide-ranging use by world powers seeking cultural integration of their empires. Governments have also funneled programming through private news organizations, as when the British government arranged to insert news into the Reuters feed during and after World War Two.

Investigation into the Central Intelligence Agency pursued in the s found that it owned hundreds of news organizations wire services, newspapers, magazines outright. The Russian KGB heavily pursued a strategy of disinformation , planting false stories which made their way to news outlets worldwide. Broadcasts into Iraq before the Second Gulf War mimicked the style of local programming.

Today, Al Jazeera , a TV and internet news network owned by the government of Qatar , has become one of the foremost news sources in the world, appreciated by millions as an alternative to the Western media. If important things of life to-day consist of trans-atlantic radiophone talks arranged by commercial telephone companies; if they consist of inventions that will be commercially advantageous to the men who market them; if they consist of Henry Fords with epoch-making cars—then all this is news.

Edward Bernays , Propaganda , pp. As distinct from advertising , which deals with marketing distinct from news, public relations involves the techniques of influencing news in order to give a certain impression to the public. A standard public relations tactic, the “third-party technique”, is the creation of seemingly independent organizations, which can deliver objective-sounding statements to news organizations without revealing their corporate connections.

Public relations releases offer valuable newsworthy information to increasingly overworked journalists on deadline. Thus, public relations works its magic in secret. Public relations can dovetail with state objectives, as in the case of the news story about Iraqi soldiers taking “babies out of incubators” in Kuwaiti hospitals. Overall, the position of the public relations industry has grown stronger, while the position of news producers has grown weaker.

Public relations agents mediate the production of news about all sectors of society. Over the centuries, commentators on newspapers and society have repeatedly observed widespread human interest in news. Regular people in societies with news media often spend a lot of time reading or watching news reports. A study by sociologist Bernard Berelson found that during the New York newspaper strike, New Yorkers exhibited a virtual addiction to news, describing themselves as “lost”, “nervous”, “isolated”, and “suffering” due to the withdrawal.

They come to perceive news as characteristic of adulthood, and begin watching television news in their teenage years because of the adult status it confers. People exhibit various forms of skepticism towards the news. Studies of tabloid readers found that many of them gain pleasure from seeing through the obviously fake or poorly constructed stories—and get their “real news” from television. An important feature distinguishing news from private information transfers is the impression that when one reads or hears, or watches it, one joins a larger public.

Images connected with news can also become iconic and gain a fixed role in the culture. With the new interconnectedness of global media, the experience of receiving news along with a world audience reinforces the social cohesion effect on a larger scale.

This collective form experience can be understood to constitute a political realm or public sphere. This idea, at least as a goal to be sought, has re-emerged in the era of global communications. The news about Tiananmen Square travelled over a fax machine, telephone, newspaper, radio, and television, and continued to travel even after the government imposed new restrictions on local telecommunications.

As the technological means for disseminating news grew more powerful, news became an experience which millions of people could undergo simultaneously. Outstanding news experiences can exert a profound influence on millions of people. Through its power to effect a shared experience, news events can mold the collective memory of a society.

One type of news event, the media event , is a scripted pageant organized for a mass live broadcast. Media events include athletic contests such as the Super Bowl and the Olympics, cultural events like awards ceremonies and celebrity funerals, and also political events such as coronations, debates between electoral candidates, and diplomatic ceremonies. Public relations companies can participate in these events as well. The perception that an ongoing crisis is taking place further increases the significance of live news.

People rely on the news and constantly seek more of it, to learn new information and to seek reassurance amidst feelings of fear and uncertainty. In , the capture of American hostages in Iran dominated months of news coverage in the western media, gained the status of a “crisis”, and influenced a presidential election. South Africans overwhelmingly describe the end of Apartheid as a source of the country’s most important news.

Kennedy , Martin Luther King, Jr. Kennedy , the moon landing , the Challenger explosion, the death of Princess Diana, the intervention of the Supreme Court in the presidential election and the September 11 attacks. Positive news stories found memorable by Jordanians featured political events affecting their lives and families—such as the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon , and the Israel—Jordan peace treaty.

Tales of the Giant. Subscribe to National Geographic. Go Further. Magazine Proof Snoozing in flower beds? Behold the bears of summer. Animals Do spiders dream? A new study suggests they do. Animals Sea creatures pollinate marine plants and algae, surprising scientists. Animals Wildlife Watch What do we owe horseshoe crabs? Environment Thunderstorms are moving East with climate change.

Environment Nuclear fusion powers stars. Could it one day electrify Earth? Environment Planet Possible Can food crops grow in the dark? Scientists are working out how. Environment Indonesia’s giant capital city is sinking. Can it be saved? Environment Planet Possible No state is losing land like Louisiana. None has a bolder plan. They’re fighting back. Air pressure was added as a new height-level diagnostic, which is useful for a model validation against barometers mounted above ground e.

Also, the vertical interpolation of pressure to height surfaces was switched to linear in ln p. The resultant pressure and relative humidity changes are negligible in the lowest 1 km AGL. A new namelist option is included that allows a user to avoid double stagger averaging of omega coordinate velocity in the vertical advection of geopotential.

Thompson MP scheme: Fixed a problem with a single constant that caused approximately 4x too much fake surface aerosol emissions. Relatively small tunings for one-moment graupel Y-intercept parameter diagnosis, creating a better fit to Paul Field et al analysis of T aircraft hail data. Deng shallow cumulus scheme: Check is added for water vapor mixing ratio Qv , if negative, setting it to a small positive number. Previously, the scheme died when taking the log of negative Qv.

Deng shallow cumulus scheme: When the updraft top reached the domain top, the model would crash due to accessing out of bounds memory. The modification is to limit the vertical index of the updraft top. The modification is to initialize sfluxzen to zero before being filled. They can be found in Registry. Fixed a bug in surface downward diagnostic output of long- and short-wave fluxes and two other bugs involving wrong numerical values used in the RRTMG-K code. A minor fix to BouLac PBL tendency cleans up the assignment, no longer assuming that the tendency is cumulative no effect on model results.

The overall effects of these changes are generally small although the indexing fix will prevent model crashes in extreme terrain e. The overall effects of these changes are generally small, where the biggest effects on surface statistics was the added evaporation from the ground in vegetative fraction of the grid cell.

This, by nature, increases near surface water vapor mixing ratio. In some of our tests this increased the bias in some areas. Several surface layer schemes are made thread-safe if the fractional seaice option is used. Fixed a bug in hybrid vertical coordinate option 3. The redundant “rebalance” option 2 was removed. The rebalance option must now be set to 1 when vertical refinement is turned on. Missing corner points are set when setting boundary conditions of 3D variables and all staggered variables are treated equally in symmetric BC.

Corrected the incorrect treatment of cloud transmittances of diffuse radiation by clouds in the FARMS system. The impact of these modifications is small. When the cosine of solar zenith angle is small, the ice cloud optical thickness can be negative, and the model can crash due to log10 of a negative number.

The modification is to limit the value of cloud optical thickness. Restart now works at all times. A few updates to the diagnostic schemes were added. The most unstable MU layer and precipitable water PWAT were inconsistent with the conventional definitions used by the meteorological communities. All necessary physics input files and look-up tables are linked to the corresponding directory during the compilation step.

The real program effectively skipped outputting some of the processed metgrid time periods by putting the data into an incorrect time. If a user has not seen this failure mode, then this PR does not impact them. Bug fix for idealized fire case that caused a fatal error when simulations were run with a nested domain. The netcdf diffwrf program no longer by-passes integer data, but considers these types of gridded fields as eligible for comparison.

The files HLC. TBL, and wind-turbine The namelist. Added new capability for assimilating surface pm2. Sun, W. Liu, Z. Ban, J. KPP is now compiled unoptimized. This will help with compiling WRF-Chem on ubuntu and other smaller memory systems. Prior to this fix, values for those parameters were low.

Users should now expect significantly higher values when using RACM chemical mechanisms. F, the emissions for species are computed, and then mapped to the chemistry packages e. Emissions are a function of plant functional type PFT and emission factors that depend on temperature, light, and LAI.

Improvements related to convective transport of trace gases. Addition of the trace gases and aerosol subgrid-scale convective transport Grell and Freitas, ; Li et al. A new diagnostic package for users with interests in parameters that are potentially relevant to solar applications is added.

Also, for liquid and ice variables, the ‘total’ water path, effective radius, and optical thickness are computed, where the ‘total’ variables also account for subgrid unresolved hydrometeors. Updates to the Thompson MP scheme: A significant alteration is introduced for diagnosing the Y-intercept parameter for the one-moment graupel.

These changes affect results for any graupel area. The older diagnosis used an inverse relationship for N0 as a function of graupel mass mixing ratio Qg plus a functional dependence on supercooled liquid water to approximate favorable wet growth.

A recent analysis of T aircraft-observed data by Field et al. After 5 slight modifications to the constants in the formula, this change produces the best match to observed radar reflectivities, particularly with the upper tail of the distribution.

F, and turned on. A bug fix for the BMJ cumulus scheme corrects an error with conservation of enthalpy. The fixed code produces less surface rain. The scheme is based on precipitation rate. See the following paper for science details: Koh, T. Fonseca , “Subgrid-scale cloud-radiation feedback for the Betts-Miller-Janjic convection scheme”, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, , The BMJ scheme should also be modified according to Fonseca et al.

Thanks to R. Since Deng shallow scheme provides subgrid cloud, it should not be used with Thompson cloud fraction. Hence this is not recommended. Ref: Klemp, J. Dudhia, and A. Hassiotis, , MWR. All of the odd nest ratios excluding had an incorrect feedback. For example, a ratio would be off by a single fine grid point. Even ratio feedback was not impacted. Hence one may turn off the option in a high-resolution domain. The ARW real and WRF code now ignore the provided grid distance for any domain other than the most-coarse grid using the parent grid distance and the grid distance ratio to compute the child grid distance resolution.

A run-time capability for multiple LBC files is now available. This supersedes and replaces the compile-time option. All other functionality of the capability is identical to the previously and no longer existing compile-time option. The simulation start date is now in the title or all time series output. The geopotential height in the time series output is now at half levels similar to as is done for the vertical velocity WW.

These codes break the GNU compiler v6. To re-enable the schemes, modify the configure. This is a compile-time modification. For example, the command mpirun -np wrf. For convenience, to only have output go to the master rsl files, a run-time commented-out flag is provided in the configure.

Most of the WRF modeling system uses the netcdf. The Fortran module constructs are removed for consistency with the rest of the WRF system and also to lower the bar for porting the WRF code to small Linux boxes. With this modification, the WRF code now builds and runs with newer GNU compilers starting to become important with Fortran and Fortran constructs used inside the model but still using the default installed libraries on the small desktop Linux machines where the libs are built with GNU 4.

In addition to assisting the user base that has access to user-managed Linux systems, these mods simplify building containers for WRF which can be used for automated testing or for cloud based purposes. Lastly, this modification allows the Windows-based CYGWIN environment to use a fairly recent version of the GNU compiler that was not necessarily used to build the automatically installed netcdf or mpi libraries.

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